Lesson 2: Democracy in Athens

Greek city-states tried several forms of government before democracy. First, many were oligarchies, where a small group of wealthy aristocrats held power. Draco’s harsh laws are a famous example. Then, tyrannies emerged when strong leaders, or tyrants, won popular support by promising benefits to the poor. These experiments eventually led some city-states, most famously Athens, to develop a new system called democracy, which is the focus of the following summaries.

A military change helped shift power to more people. Around 700 BCE, Greek armies adopted the phalanx, a tight formation of foot soldiers. Since city-states now depended on these non-aristocratic citizen-soldiers for defense, the soldiers gained political influence. Because they were essential to the army, they could demand a greater voice in government. This development shows how military needs can directly lead to significant political changes, paving the way for systems like democracy.

Athenian democracy was built through a series of key reforms by specific leaders. First, in 594 BCE, Solon gave more non-aristocratic men voting rights. Next, in 508 BCE, Cleisthenes reduced the power of the rich and expanded the assembly. Finally, in the 450s BCE, Pericles introduced pay for jury service, allowing poor citizens to participate. These steps progressively transferred power from the few to the many, creating the world's first democracy.

In Athens' direct democracy, citizens were the government. The system had three key parts:

• The Assembly: All male citizens could attend, speak, and vote on laws.
• The Council of 500: Chosen by lot, it prepared issues for the Assembly.
• The Courts: Large juries of citizens decided legal cases by majority vote.

This system required active participation and was only possible because of the city-state's relatively small citizen population.

While groundbreaking, Athenian democracy was far from inclusive. Citizenship, the key to political power, was severely restricted. Women could not vote or hold office. Foreign-born residents, even those from other Greek city-states, were denied any voice in government. Furthermore, the large enslaved population had no rights at all. Therefore, "rule by the people" in Athens really meant rule by a minority of the total population: free, adult, Athenian-born men.

The Athenian model of direct democracy, where every citizen votes on every law, is impractical for large countries today. The United States, for example, is too vast and has too many people for everyone to vote directly. Instead, most modern democracies are representative democracies. In this system, citizens elect officials to represent them and make laws on their behalf. This modern system still embraces the core Athenian ideal of "rule by the people."